Category: Catholic Culture

Catholic Culture: Holy Water

8/22/2017

Holy Water Grounds of Ireland's National Marian Shrine, which is located in County Mayo on the West Coast of Ireland by Shane Killen [CC BY-SA 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Holy water is water that has been sanctified by a priest for the purpose of baptism, blessing of persons, places and objects or as a means of repelling evil. It is commonly used by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Christians. Its use in the earliest days of Christianity is only attested to in later centuries. The Apostolic constitutions from 400 AD attribute its use to St. Matthew. It is probable that water was used by these earliest Christians for purification according to Jewish law and tradition. However, the water used for baptisms was flowing water found in a river or sea. While flowing water is not blessed by Roman Catholics, both water in a font and flowing water are blessed by the Eastern Orthodox Churches.

In a church, holy water is primarily stored in a baptismal font where it is used for baptisms. These fonts are typically located near the entrance to the church or in a separate room called the baptistery. Smaller vessels, called stoups, are placed near the doors to the church so that individuals can bless themselves with the sign of the cross as they enter. This is done as a sacramental to recall their baptism. Liturgies may also begin with a Rite of Blessing and Sprinkling Holy Water in which the priest uses an aspergillum to sprinkle the congregation with holy water. This practice is called aspersion, a name which comes from the Latin aspergere meaning “to sprinkle.”

In the Middle Ages, the faithful attributed great power to holy water both in terms of blessing and repelling evil. For this reason, holy water fonts were covered and locked to prevent the water from being stolen and used for magical practices. While this is no longer the case today, holy water is still treated with reverence and in a special manner. It cannot be disposed of via ordinary plumbing but, instead, is poured into a sacrarium, a special sink which drains directly into the ground.

Catholic Culture: The Ichthys

8/15/2017

The ichthys is a symbol consisting of 2 intersecting arcs which resemble the profile of a fish. Its name comes from Koine Greek, meaning fish and is also known as the “sign of the fish” or “Jesus fish.” It first appeared as a symbol in the 2nd century AD. Early Christians used the ichthys to mark meeting places and tombs and to distinguish friends from foes. One tradition holds that when a Christian would meet another person he or she would draw one arc in the dirt. If the other person was also a Christian, he or she would draw a second arc to complete the symbol. It is possible the symbol’s popularity came from St. Clement of Alexandria recommending that seals be engraved with a dove or a fish. It also is believed that the fish symbol drew less attention than using a cross because fish images were used by other religious traditions as well.

For Christians, the ichthys has many symbolic meanings. Its name itself has been turned into an acrostic, a word in which each letter represents a word in a longer phrase. In Koine Greek, ichthys is written ΙΧΘΥΣ which stands for the phrase "Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ", (Iēsous Christos, Theou Yios, Sōtēr). In English, this translates as “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour.” It is unknown who originally created this phrase, although it is found in St. Augustine’s 5th century work Civitate Dei, or City of God.

Fish are also frequently mentioned in the Gospels. Several of the Apostles were fishermen and were commissioned by Jesus as “fishers of men.” One of the most famous miracles, the Feeding of the 5,000, involved the multiplication of loaves and fishes as a sign of God’s ability to provide. Jesus uses the “Parable of the Drawing in the Net” to describe how God will judge mankind at the end of the world. Another miracle related to us is the miraculous catch in which Jesus tells the disciples to cast their net off the other side of their boat, resulting in a catch of 153 fish. We also read of a confrontation in which Peter is asked if Jesus pays the temple tax. Jesus tells Peter to cast his line into the lake whereupon Peter catches a fish which contains a coin sufficient to pay the tax.

In addition to these Gospel references, the fish has also been interpreted as the “sign of Jonah.” The prophet Jonah is famous for having been trapped in the belly of a large fish before embarking on his mission to Nineveh. Similarly, after His crucifixion Jesus was trapped in the tomb for three days prior to His resurrection. In this way, the fish of Jonah becomes symbolic of Christ’s resurrection and victory over death. Tertullian references both this and baptism when he writes that “we, little fishes … are born in water.”

Although an ancient symbol, the ichthys has seen a modern revival beginning in the 1970s. It is now found in many places as a symbol of modern Christianity, often with the word “Jesus” or the Greek “ΙΧΘΥΣ” inside the symbol.

Catholic Culture: Feast of the Assumption

8/8/2017

Assumption Procession in Prozelo, Arcos de Valdevez, Portugal By José Gonçalves (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

The Assumption of Mary, also called the Dormition of the Theotokos (Falling Asleep of the Blessed Virgin Mary), is the belief that the Virgin Mary’s body was taken up into Heaven at the end of her life. It was dogmatically defined by Pope Pius XII on November 1, 1950 in one of the few instances of a pope exercising papal infallibility. It is considered a major feast day in both the Eastern and Western Churches and is celebrated on August 15th. In many countries, it has been declared a Holy Day of Obligation.

Accounts of the Assumption have circulated since the 4th century. In the 5th and 6th century, several apocryphal writings were written describing this event and many of the legends associated with it. One of these legends is that the apostles were carried on clouds to Mary’s deathbed from the towns were they were preaching. Another, dated to the 7th century, St. Thomas was not present when Mary died and, when he arrived, asked that the tomb be reopened. It was found to be empty except for the grave cloths, Mary dropped her girdle from Heaven as a sign of her Assumption. Two rival traditions place the Assumption as occurring either in Ephesus at the House of the Virgin Mary or Jerusalem at Mary’s Tomb. St. John of Damascus, in the 6th century, was the first church authority to advocate for the doctrine. He was joined by St. Gregory of Tours and Modestus of Jerusalem in in promoting the concept to the wider Church. Around 600 AD, the feast was officially established as the Dormition of Mary under Emperor Maurice. It was first officially celebrated in the West under Pope Selgius II and confirmed as a feast by Pope Leo IV. The theological debate continued following the Reformation until Pius XII defined it in 1950.

The Feast of the Assumption is celebrated as a public holiday in many Catholic and Eastern Orthodox countries. In Hungary, it is a national holiday because St. Stephen of Hungary, the nation’s first king, offered the royal crown to Mary upon his coronation. In France, a traditional pageant is held in which angels descend to a “sepulcher” and then reascend with an image of Mary. Many of the customs developed around the fact that August is a time when harvests are beginning. In German-speaking lands, August 15th to September 16th are called “Our Lady’s Thirty Days.” Assumption shrines in these places often depict Mary in a robe decorated with ears of grain and it is said that animals and plants lose their harmful traits during Our Lady’s Thirty Days and food produced during this time is especially wholesome and lasts longer. In Central Europe, the feast is called “Our Lady’s Herb Day” and herbs are blessed to increase their medicinal power and make them efficient against diseases. In Armenia, the first grapes of the season are blessed and then distributed to the family before breakfast. Sicilians observe a two-week fast from fruit before the Assumption. On the Assumption, they exchange baskets of fruit, have the fruit blessed and then serve it with dinner. In the Alps, priests traditionally ride out into the countryside and bless meadows, field and livestock with holy water. In Portugal, oceans and fisherman’s boats have traditionally been blessed. This tradition has also been brought to the United States in coastal towns.

Catholic Culture: Feast of the Transfiguration

8/1/2017

Transfiguration by Titian

The Feast of the Transfiguration is a major feast day celebrated on August 6th. This feast commemorates the Transfiguration of Jesus on Mount Tabor before the apostles Peter, James and John. During this event, the apostles are given a glimpse of Jesus’s divine nature and see Him talking with Elijah and Moses. Peter asks if they should build three tents and a voice speaks from a shining cloud. The Transfiguration is one of two events in the Gospels referred to as a theophany, a Greek word meaning “appearance of God.” These events, the other is the Baptism of Christ, are both focused on Christ and mark the explicit presence of all three persons of the Blessed Trinity – in this case Christ Himself, the Father in the voice and the Holy Spirit in the shining cloud.

The Feast of the Transfiguration has been celebrated in the Eastern Church since at least the 7th century. It is believed to have its origins in the dedication of three basilicas on Mount Tabor. By the 10th century, it was celebrated throughout the Christian world, although not always on the same date. In 1456, Pope Calixtus III made the Transfiguration a universal feast to be celebrated on August 6th in commemoration of the raising of the Siege of Belgrade which repelled an Ottoman invasion.

Many scholars believe that the Transfiguration occurred during the Jewish festival of Sukkot, or the Feast of Booths. This festival commemorates the forty years the Israelites spent wandering in the wilderness and is also one of the Jewish harvest festivals. It is primarily celebrated by the building of a sukkah, or tent, in which one lives during the feast. This is one explanation for Peter’s suggestion to build tents during the Transfiguration.

Traditionally, the Feast of the Transfiguration is one of several harvest festivals celebrated in August. August 1st – the Feast of St. Peter in Chains – was also called Lammas Day and was a celebration of the first harvest of wheat during which loaves of bread would be brought to Mass to be blessed. August 15th – the Assumption – is associated with the blessing of fruits, flowers and herbs. The Transfiguration has traditionally been associated with the blessing of grapes, raisins and wine – especially in the Eastern Churches. Because Christ’s robes were transformed into a dazzling white, it is also a custom in some places to eat white foods on the Feast of the Transfiguration.

Catholic Culture: Church Bells

7/25/2017

The new bells of Notre Dame de Paris on display in the nave in February 2013 before being hung in the towers of the cathedral. Photo: Myrabella / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY-SA 3.0

A church bell is a bell rung in a church for a variety of purposes. They typically are hung in a steeple or belltower so that they can be heard outside of the church. Traditional uses of church bells include to call worshipers to the church for a communal service, to announce times of daily prayer, to call the canonical hours and on special occasions such as weddings and funerals. The traditional European church bell consists of a cup-shaped metal resonator with a pivoted clapper hanging inside which strikes the sides when the bell is swung. The bell can either be hung in a fixed position (referred to as “hung dead”) in which case it is struck in order to be rung or hung from a pivoted beam or headstock which allows the bell to be swung back on forth by pulling on a rope.

Church bells are used for many different purposes. As a call to prayer, some Anglican, Lutheran and Catholic churches ring their bells three times a day – at 6 AM, Noon and 6 PM – to summon the faithful to recite the Lord’s Prayer or the Angelus. The only time the bells are not rung out is from Holy Thursday through the Easter Vigil. Church bells are also rung to signal the start of Mass or a worship service. Traditionally, there are three times when a bell could be rung in connection to a death: the “Passing Bell” to warn of an impending death, the “Death Knell” upon the death of a person and the “Funeral Toll” as the funeral procession approaches the church. Sanctus Bells are special bells hung near the peak of the roof outside or above the entrance to the sanctuary inside which are rung at the singing of the Sanctus and at the elevation of the bread and wine to indicate to those not present that the moment of consecration has arrived. Within the church, this function is often performed by altar bells which are usually a small set of handbells.

According to tradition, the ringing of church bells is believed to drive out demons and other unclean spirits. Because of this, bells are often blessed before they’re hung. In the Roman Catholic Church, bells are blessed using the Baptism of Bells. In this ritual, the bells are washed inside and out with holy water by the bishop. They are then anointed on the outside with the oil of the infirm and on the inside with chrism. A fuming thurible is then placed inside the bells as the bishop prays over the bell.

Bells were first introduced into the Christian Church by St. Paulinus of Nola in AD 400. Their use was officially sanctioned in AD 604 by Pope Sabinian. Bells first became common in northern Europe due to Celtic influence, especially from Irish missionaries. Before bells were introduced, Greek monasteries would strike a semantron, or flat metal plate, to announce services.

Catholic Culture: The Angelus

7/18/2017

The Angelus by Jean-Francois Millet

The Angelus is a Catholic devotion commemorating the Incarnation of Christ. The name is derived from its incipt, or opening line: “Angelus Domini nutiavit Mariae” (“the Angel of the Lord declared unto Mary.”) It takes the form of three Biblical verses narrating the mystery of the Incarnation which are recited as a versicle and response, alternating with the recitation of the Hail Mary. Traditionally, the devotion was recited in churches, convents and monasteries three times daily – 6:00 AM, 12:00 Noon, and 6:00 PM. These times were usually accompanied by the ringing of the Angelus bell, which served as both a call to prayer and a call to spread goodwill to all. This bell was rung in three sets of three strokes, with a pause between each set. In many countries – particularly Ireland, the Philippines and parts of Germany – the Angelus bell is still rung in churches or broadcast on television and radio.

The history of the Angelus is difficult to trace. It is certain that it was already well established 700 years ago, as the first written documentation is found in Italian monasteries in the 13th century. It is believed that it had its origins with the 11th century custom of reciting three Hail Marys during the evening, or Compline, bell. Eventually, this custom was extended to the morning, or Prime, bell as well. Recitation at noon grew out of the custom of commemorating the Passion at noon on Fridays. As a result, the custom was that Hail Marys were said to commemorate the Resurrection in the morning, the Passion at noon, and the Annunciation in the evening. Both Pope Urban II and Pope John XXII have been credited with instituting the Angelus while the triple recitation is ascribed to King Louis XI of France in 1472. By the 17th century, the form of the prayer was standardized.

Today, it is still customary in many places to recite the Angelus three times daily. At the lines “And the Word was made flesh / And dwelt among us”, it is common to bow or genuflect to draw attention to the moment of the Incarnation. For those who wish to begin reciting this prayer, the text is included below:

℣. The Angel of the LORD declared unto Mary,
℟. And she conceived of the Holy Spirit.
Hail Mary …
℣. Behold the handmaid of the LORD.
℟. Be it done unto me according to thy word.
Hail Mary …
℣. And the Word was made flesh.
℟. And dwelt among us.
Hail Mary …
℣. Pray for us, O' Holy Mother of God.
℟. That we might be made worthy of the promises of Christ.

Let us pray,
Pour forth, we beseech Thee, O LORD, Thy grace into our hearts; that, we, to whom the Incarnation of Christ, Thy Son, was made known by the message of an angel, may by His Passion and Cross be brought to the glory of His Resurrection. Through the same Christ our Lord.

℟. Amen.

Catholic Culture: LIturgy of the Hours

7/11/2017

Benedictine monks singing Vespers on Holy Saturday by John Stephen Dwyer [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

The Liturgy of the Hours, also called the Divine Office or Work of God, is the official set of prayers “marking the hours of each day and sanctifying the day with prayer.” (USCCB, “Liturgy of the Hours”) It consists primarily of psalms supplemented by hymns, readings and other prayers and antiphons. Along with the Mass, the Liturgy of the Hours forms the official public prayer life in the Church. As such, priests and transitional deacons are obligated to celebrate it each day. Permanent deacons are obligated to celebrate only that part of the Liturgy designated by their episcopal conference. Religious communities generally require their members to celebrate the Liturgy at least in parts, often doing so jointly (referred to as “in choir”). While the laity are under no obligation to celebrate the Liturgy of the Hours, they are encouraged to recite it.

The Liturgy of the Hours has formed part of the Church’s public worship from the earliest days of Christianity and continues to be celebrated by Christians of both Eastern and Western traditions. Its origins come from the Jewish practice of reciting prayers at certain hours of the day. Early Christians continued this practice, with Acts recording that the Apostles prayed at the third, sixth and ninth hours and at midnight. These prayers originally consisted of reciting or chanting psalms and reading from the Old Testament. Readings from the New Testament and canticles were soon added. As monasteries were formed, the Liturgy of the Hours took on a more defined form. By the 5th century, it was composed of seven hours each celebrated at a specific time: Matins (during night or at midnight), Lauds (at dawn or 3 AM), Terce (3rd hour, approx. 9 AM), Sext (6th hour, approx. Noon), None (9th hour, approx. 3 PM), Vespers (“at the lighting of the lamps,” approx. 6 PM), and Compline (before retiring, approx. 9 PM). In the 6th century, St. Benedict added an eighth hour – Prime (1st hour, approx. 6 AM).

While the psalms and prayers recited during the Liturgy of the Hours were adjusted over time, the basic structure of hours of the Traditional Roman Breviary remained unchanged until Vatican II. After Vatican II, Pope Paul VI promulgated a new Roman Breviary which modified the structure of the hours and the distribution of prayer and psalms. It also introduced the idea of “major” and “minor” hours. Major hours contained more psalms and prayers and took longer to recite than minor hours. The new structure consisted of the major hours – Office of Readings (formerly Matins), Lauds or Morning Prayer and Vespers or Evening Prayer – and minor hours – Daytime Prayer (consisting of one or all of Terce or Mid-Morning Prayer, Sext or Midday Prayer and None or Mid-Afternoon Prayer) and Compline or Night Prayer.

The beauty of the Liturgy of the Hours comes from its continuous nature. Following the cycles, it reflects the rhythm of the day from praise in the morning to thanksgiving in the evening and self-examination at night. It is truly one of the most beautiful prayers of the Church. It truly is the Church constantly praying for the entire world.

Catholic Culture: Devotional Medals

7/4/2017

Four Catholic devotional medals By GrammarFascist (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Devotional medals are pieces of metals, often worn around the neck, struck to commemorate some aspect of Catholic religion, either a person (Christ, the pope, a saint), a place (churches or shrines) or an idea. They exist to remind the wearer of his or her faith in God, to offer a way to communicate with God and to strengthen one’s beliefs.

The use of amulets for protection was widespread among pagans. Early Christian leaders adapted this practice in the form of small metal objects, often in the shape of crosses or coins. These coins would be stamped with an image on either one or both sides, often of a saint or shrine. This practice continued into the Middle Ages, but it is unknown how widespread it was due to lack of records. The earliest mention of medals struck for a specific reason is found in the 12th century. At this time, pilgrims received tokens cast in lead as a sign that they had visited a famous pilgrimage site. These “pilgrim signs” were often worn on the breast or hat. By the Renaissance in the 14th century, medals used specifically for religious devotion were being struck in Italy. They were made to represent saints or shrine and to commemorate papal jubilees. Eventually, indulgences were attached to particular medals. By the 17th century, the practice had spread to all of Catholic Europe and most cities had craftsmen capable of producing medals.

In the centuries since they were developed, hundreds of varieties of medals have been produced. Although it is impossible to classify all of these medals, several types have become common. Plague medals were struck and blessed as protection against pestilence. Their subjects often included St. Sebastian, St. Roch or shrines of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Medals commemorating Miracles of the Eucharist are struck in the place where the miracle occurred to commemorate jubilees and centenaries of the miracles. Private medals are struck to commemorate events in the life of an individual, such as baptism, marriage or first communion. Papal medals have been struck since Pope Martin V in 1417 to commemorate important events during a pontificate, most often the opening and closing of the Holy Doors in a Jubilee year.

Catholic Culture: Holy Cards

6/27/2017

By Wolfgang Sauber (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

Holy cards are small, devotional pictures which are mass-produced for the use of the faithful. They usually depict a religious scene or a saint and are about the size of a playing card. On the reverse is typically a prayer. Prayer cards are used to commemorate many important events such as baptisms, confirmations and other religious events. One of the most common of these special cards are “In memoriam cards.” These are printed to be distributed at funerals and often contain a photo of the deceased person with details of the person’s life printed on the back. The circulation of holy cards is an important part of Roman Catholic culture. Prayer cards have also become popular among Orthodox and Protestant Christians.

Holy cards have their origins in portable woodcuts of old master prints. These portable prints served many of the same functions as holy cards in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. The oldest surviving example of these woodcuts is an image of St. Christopher from 1423. Later, engravings and etchings became more common. These were often created by monasteries and convents as a way to generate funds and to serve as mementos for visiting pilgrims. A special form of these cards was developed by nuns in France who would create elaborate lace borders for the cards. These elaborate holy cards became known as devotes dentelles.

The invention of lithography in the 18th century made it possible to mass produce holy cards easily, increasing their popularity. The development of chromolithography, which allowed multiple colors to be used, in the early 19th century led to an explosion in the popularity of holy cards. One of the earliest centers of manufacturing was at the Church of St. Sulpice in Paris. There cards were noted for their pastel colors and proved to be influential on later designs. As their popularity grew, Belgium, Germany and Italy also became centers of manufacturing holy cards. Catholic printing houses produced thousands of cards and, often, a single design would be printed by multiple companies in different countries. For a time, they even proved to be collectible, as companies would produce a series of cards about the life of a saint and package one card with a product such as a box of chocolates. The consumer would then try to collect all of the cards in the series.

The popularity of holy cards continued to grow into the 20th century. One of the most famous of these holy cards is known as the Head of Christ and is based on the famous painting by Warner Sallman. It was widely produced and distributed to soldiers during World War II, and its popularity increased during the early days of the Cold War. However, following Vatican II and the introduction of the Novus Ordo Mass led to a decline in the use of holy cards as the need for missals declined. However, in recent years, interest in holy cards has seen a resurgence, especially among collectors.

Catholic Culture: Camino de Santiago

6/20/2017

By jonathan jacobi (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/)], via Wikimedia Commons

The Camino de Santiago, also called the Way of St. James, is the name of pilgrimage routes to the shrine of St. James the Great in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in northwestern Spain. It was one of the most important pilgrimage route in the Middle Ages, along with the Via Francigena to Rome and the pilgrimage route to Jerusalem. According to legend, following his martyrdom St. James’s remains were carried by boat from Jerusalem to Spain where he had preached. The ship carrying his remains encountered a storm and sank, but St. James’s body washed up on the shore covered in scallops. For this reason, the scallop has become the symbol of the Camino. Scallops can be found along the route as a guide to pilgrims. Additionally, pilgrims would often receive a scallop at the beginning of their pilgrimage. This served as sign that they were a pilgrim and could also be used to scoop water or as a bowl for eating. Many also believe that the scallop represents the pilgrimage route itself, as the many grooves meeting at a single point represent pilgrims arriving at Santiago via different routes.

The main route of the Camino follows an earlier Roman trade route called the “voie lactée,” French for “Milky Way,” because the Milky Way served to guide travelers along the route. Even today, a popular Spanish name for the Milky Way is “El Camino de Santiago.” Legend holds that the Milky Way was formed from dust raised by traveling pilgrims. The name “Compostela” even means “field of stars.” The earliest record of visits to the shrine date from the 9th century, and the earliest pilgrims from outside of Spain and Portugal are from the 11th century. By the early 12th century the pilgrimage had become a highly organized affair, due in part to the encouragement of Pope Callixtus II. He had the Codex Callixtinus published as a guide book for pilgrims. Even today, the 5th book of the Codex is considered the definitive source for modern guidebooks. The daily needs of pilgrims along the route were met by a series of hospitals, often run by Catholic orders and under royal protection. Although it was highly traveled in the Middle Ages, its popularity declined due to the Black Death, the Reformation and political unrest in the 16th century. While it never fully fell out of use, by the 1980s, only a handful of pilgrims arrived in Santiago each year.

The Camino has seen a modern revival, with hundreds of thousands traveling the route every years; many viewing it as a kind of spiritual retreat. Although pilgrims can take any route to Santiago, common routes include the Camino Primitivo, the oldest route originating in Oviedo, Spain; the Camino Francés, the most popular route beginning at St.-Jean-de-Pied-de-Port and part of the Via Regis; and the Portuguese Way, originating in Lisbon. Pilgrims traveling the Camino obtain credencials or “pilgrim’s passports” which provide access to accommodations in hostels. These hostels, also called refugios, are located along the route and are usually run by a local parish, government, private owners or pilgrims’ associations. Pilgrims are usually limited to a one night stay and are expected to leave by 8 in the morning. They receive a stamp in their credencial, which serves as a record of their journey. At the end, they present these stamps to the Pilgrim Office in Santiago as proof of their journey and can receive a “compostela.” This is a certificate of completing for pilgrims who have walked at least 100 km or cycled at least 200 km. A Pilgrim’s Mass is celebrated each day at Noon and 7:30 PM at which pilgrim’s countries of origin and starting points are announced. The Camindo de Santiago was placed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1993.